How Indian Politics Works: Elections, PM & MPs

PART 01The basics

Start here

India's political system at a glance

The Preamble to the Constitution describes India in a handful of words. Each one tells you something about how the country is governed.

Sovereign01

Samprabhu

India makes its own decisions. No outside country or power has authority over its laws or government.

Socialist02

Samajwadi

The State aims to reduce inequality and work for social and economic justice for all citizens.

Secular03

Panthnirpeksh

The State has no official religion and treats every religion equally. Every citizen is free to follow their faith.

Democratic04

Loktantrik

Power comes from the people. Adult citizens choose their representatives through regular, free elections.

Republic05

Ganrajya

The Head of State (the President) is elected, not a hereditary monarch.

Parliamentary system06

Sansadiya pranali

The government (Prime Minister and ministers) comes from the legislature and stays in office only while it keeps the confidence of the elected House.

Historical

The words Socialist and Secular were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment in 1976. “Parliamentary system” isn't a Preamble word — it describes the form of government the Constitution sets up.

The three organs of the State

Legislature

Vidhayika

→ Makes laws

Parliament for the Union; State Legislatures for States. Debates and passes laws, approves budgets, and holds the executive to account.

• Parliament (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha + President)
• State Legislative Assemblies
• Legislative Councils (some States)

Executive

Karyapalika

→ Implements laws and runs the government

The political executive (President/Governor, PM/CM and ministers) sets policy; the permanent executive (civil servants) carries it out.

• President & Union Council of Ministers
• Governor & State Council of Ministers
• Ministries, departments, civil services

Judiciary

Nyayapalika

→ Interprets laws and resolves disputes

An integrated, independent court system that decides disputes and can strike down laws or actions that violate the Constitution.

• Supreme Court of India
• High Courts
• District and subordinate courts

The three organs are separate but connected. In India's parliamentary system the executive comes from the legislature — the Prime Minister and ministers must be members of Parliament and stay in office only while the Lok Sabha supports them. The judiciary is independent of both and can review whether their laws and actions are consistent with the Constitution. This is often called a system of checks and balances rather than a strict separation of powers.

The most important question

Who votes for whom?

Not every political position is filled by ordinary voters. Some are directly elected, some are elected by other representatives, and some are appointed. Filter the table to see which is which.

Direct

You vote for them on a ballot

Lok Sabha MP · MLA · Panchayat & ward members

Indirect

Elected by people you elected

President · Vice-President · Rajya Sabha MP · most MLCs

Appointed

Chosen on the basis of majority support or by the President

Prime Minister · Chief Minister · Governor

Who elects each political position in India, how, for how long, and what they do
Position	Who elects / appoints them?	Direct or indirect	Term	Main role
Lok Sabha MP	Registered voters of a Parliamentary Constituency	Direct	5 years, unless the Lok Sabha is dissolved earlier	Represents the constituency in Parliament, makes Union laws, votes on the Union Budget and holds the Union government accountable.
Rajya Sabha MP	Elected MLAs of each State (and electoral colleges for UTs with legislatures), by proportional representation; 12 are nominated by the President	Indirect	6 years; about one-third retire every two years	Represents States in Parliament, reviews and passes Union laws, and brings a longer-term, federal perspective.
MLA	Registered voters of an Assembly Constituency	Direct	5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved earlier	Represents the constituency in the State Assembly, makes State laws, votes on the State Budget and questions the State government.
MLC	A mix: MLAs, local-body members, graduates and teachers elect most members; the Governor nominates the rest	Indirect / mixed	6 years; about one-third retire every two years	Member of the Legislative Council, which reviews State legislation — only in States that have a Council.
President	Electoral College: elected MPs of both Houses + elected MLAs of all States and of Delhi and Puducherry	Indirect	5 years; can be re-elected	Head of State. Acts on the aid and advice of the Union Council of Ministers in almost all matters.
Vice-President	All members of both Houses of Parliament (elected and nominated)	Indirect	5 years	Ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha; acts as President if that office falls vacant.
Prime Minister	Appointed by the President — normally the leader who commands majority support in the Lok Sabha	Appointed (not directly elected)	No fixed term — continues while holding the confidence of the Lok Sabha	Head of Government. Leads the Council of Ministers and sets the Union government's direction.
Chief Minister	Appointed by the Governor — normally the leader who commands majority support in the Legislative Assembly	Appointed (not directly elected)	No fixed term — continues while holding the confidence of the Assembly	Head of the State Government. Leads the State Council of Ministers.
Governor	Appointed by the President (on the advice of the Union government)	Appointed	5 years, but holds office during the pleasure of the President	Constitutional head of the State. Acts on the advice of the State Council of Ministers, with limited discretionary functions.
Mayor	Varies by State — directly by voters in some States, by elected councillors in others	Varies by State	Varies by State law — from one year to five years	Presides over the Municipal Corporation. How much executive power a Mayor has depends on the State's municipal law.
Panchayat representatives	Ward members: directly by village voters. Sarpanch/Pradhan: directly or by members, as the State's law provides	Mostly direct	5 years	Run village-level local government — local works, sanitation, water and implementation of schemes.

The key relationships, one line each

Citizen → votes directly for their Lok Sabha MP
Citizen → votes directly for their MLA
Rajya Sabha MP → elected by the elected MLAs of the State (proportional representation); 12 are nominated by the President for expertise in fields such as art, science, literature and social service
President → elected by an Electoral College of elected MPs and elected MLAs
Vice-President → elected by all members of both Houses of Parliament
Prime Minister → appointed by the President — normally the leader who commands majority support in the Lok Sabha
Chief Minister → appointed by the Governor — normally the leader who commands majority support in the Legislative Assembly
Governor → appointed by the President

Arts. 54, 66, 75, 80, 155, 164Mayor & Sarpanch election method

Your vote

What exactly are you voting for?

On polling day you choose one candidate in your constituency. But that single choice feeds into something larger: which party or alliance gets enough seats to form a government.

What your vote does directly

“My vote is for a candidate.”

The ballot lists candidates for your constituency only. Whoever gets the most votes there wins that one seat — even with less than 50% of the votes.

What it does indirectly

“My vote helps form a government.”

Seats won across all constituencies add up for each party or alliance. The side with majority support in the House forms the government and its leader becomes PM or CM.

Voter
in one of 543 constituencies
Chooses a candidate
in their Parliamentary Constituency
Winning candidate becomes MP
most votes wins the seat
Party / alliance obtains seats
totals added up nationally
Majority / support in Lok Sabha
272 of 543 when all seats are filled
Prime Minister appointed
by the President
Union Council of Ministers formed
on the PM's advice

What you don't vote on

The Prime Minister's name is not on your ballot. Parties often announce who they would make PM, but formally the President appoints whoever commands the confidence of the newly elected Lok Sabha.

Example

Suppose Party A wins your constituency, but Party B wins most seats nationally. Your MP is from Party A — and sits in the opposition — while the government is formed by Party B. Both outcomes came from the same election.

Master diagram

“Who elects whom?” — the whole picture

Tap or hover any position to see who chooses it and for how long.

INDIAN CITIZENS

registered voters, 18+

Vote directly for

Your name is on the roll, the candidate's name is on the ballot.

Indirect / other electoral processes

Elected by people you elected — not by you on a ballot.

Government formation

Appointed on the strength of majority support — no ballot at all.

Citizens never vote directly for the Prime Minister or a Chief Minister.

PART 02Structure of government

Structure

India's political hierarchy

India governs itself at three levels above the voter: local, State and Union. Select any office or body to see how it's chosen and what it does.

LEVEL 4Union government

Governs matters of national importance — the Union List — and shares the Concurrent List with States.

LEVEL 3State government

Each State has its own legislature and executive, working within the State and Concurrent Lists.

LEVEL 2Local government

Panchayats in villages, municipal bodies in towns and cities. Structures vary by State.

LEVEL 1People / Voters

Every adult citizen on the electoral roll. The source of all democratic authority.

“Higher” does not mean “boss”

These are levels of government, not a chain of command. A Chief Minister does not report to the Prime Minister; a municipal councillor does not report to an MLA. Each level has its own powers under the Constitution and State laws, and they cooperate — and sometimes disagree — on shared subjects.

Federal structure

Central (Union) Government vs State Government

India is a Union of States. The Constitution divides law-making subjects between the Union and the States in the Seventh Schedule.

Union Government compared with State Government
	Union Government	State Government
Main legislature	Parliament — President + Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha	State Legislature — Governor + Legislative Assembly (+ Legislative Council in some States)
Head of government	Prime Minister	Chief Minister
Constitutional head	President	Governor
Ministers	Union Council of Ministers — at most 15% of Lok Sabha strength (Art. 75(1A))	State Council of Ministers — at most 15% of Assembly strength, minimum 12 (Art. 164(1A))
Elections	Lok Sabha general election, normally every 5 years	Assembly election for that State, normally every 5 years — each State on its own cycle
Subjects	Union List (e.g. defence, foreign affairs, currency, railways) + residuary powers	State List (e.g. police, public order, public health, agriculture, land)
Law-making powers	Union List and Concurrent List; a valid Union law generally prevails in a Concurrent-List conflict (Art. 254)	State List and Concurrent List, for that State only
Constituencies	Parliamentary (Lok Sabha) Constituencies	Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) Constituencies
Budget	Union Budget (Annual Financial Statement, Art. 112) passed by Parliament	State Budget (Art. 202) passed by the State Legislature
Administration	Union ministries and departments; central services and All-India Service officers	State departments and district administration; State services and All-India Service officers on State cadre

The three lists — who can make laws on what

Union List

Only Parliament legislates

Defence and armed forces
Foreign affairs
Currency, coinage and RBI
Railways
Citizenship, passports
Atomic energy, posts and telegraphs

State List

Normally only State Legislatures legislate

Police
Public order
Public health and hospitals
Agriculture
Land and land revenue
Local government

Concurrent List

Both can legislate

Education
Criminal law and procedure
Forests
Marriage and divorce
Electricity
Trade unions

Constitutional rule

Subjects not in any list — residuary powers — belong to Parliament (Art. 248). If a valid Union law and a State law clash on a Concurrent subject, the Union law generally prevails, unless the State law has received the President's assent (Art. 254). In specific situations, such as a national Emergency or a Rajya Sabha resolution under Art. 249, Parliament can also legislate on State subjects.

Quick reference

“Who is the head?”

India separates the ceremonial, constitutional head from the person who actually leads the government — at both Union and State level.

India (the Union)

PresidentHead of State
Prime MinisterHead of Government

A State

GovernorConstitutional Head
Chief MinisterHead of State Government

Parliament

Presidentpart of Parliament (Art. 79)
Lok SabhaHouse of the People
Rajya SabhaCouncil of States

State Legislature

Governorpart of the Legislature (Art. 168)
Legislative Assemblyevery State
Legislative Councilwhere applicable

See how each State is governed todayStates & UTs

PART 03Parliament

Parliament · Lower House

Lok Sabha — House of the People

The Lok Sabha is the directly elected House of Parliament. It is the House that decides who governs India: the Union government must keep a majority here to stay in office.

543

elected seats — one per Parliamentary Constituency

Current status

272

seats for a majority when all 543 are filled

Current status

5 yrs

normal term from its first meeting (Art. 83)

Constitutional rule

25+

minimum age to become a Lok Sabha MP (Art. 84)

Constitutional rule

India is divided into 543 Parliamentary Constituencies. In a general election, voters in each constituency elect one MP by first-past-the-post: the candidate with the most votes wins. The Constitution allows up to 550 elected members (Art. 81); the actual number is set by law after delimitation.

Term & dissolution — The Lok Sabha lasts five years from its first sitting unless the President dissolves it earlier — normally on the advice of the Prime Minister. A new general election then follows.
Majority & government — The party or alliance with majority support forms the Union government. Its leader is appointed Prime Minister.
Opposition — Parties not in government form the opposition. The largest may have its leader recognised as Leader of Opposition.
Speaker — Elected by the members from among themselves (Art. 93). Presides over debates, keeps order, decides whether a Bill is a Money Bill, and has a casting vote in a tie.
Legislation — Any Bill must pass the Lok Sabha to become law. It has the final say on Money Bills and a numerical advantage in joint sittings.
Money Bills — Can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha can only recommend changes.
Confidence — The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Art. 75(3)). If the House passes a no-confidence motion — or the government loses a confidence vote — the government must resign.

543 constituencies
Parliamentary Constituencies
Voters vote
one MP per seat
Winning candidates
first-past-the-post
Lok Sabha MPs
take oath in the new House
Party / alliance numbers
who has 272+?
Government formation
PM appointed

Historical

Until 2020 the President could nominate up to two members of the Anglo-Indian community to the Lok Sabha. That provision ended with the 104th Amendment (2019). Today every Lok Sabha member is elected.

Want to know your MP?Find your MP

Parliament · Upper House

Rajya Sabha — Council of States

The Rajya Sabha exists so that the States, not just the population, have a voice in Union law-making. It is a permanent House that is never dissolved.

250

constitutional maximum — 238 elected + 12 nominated (Art. 80)

Constitutional rule

245

seats at present — 233 elected + 12 nominated

Current status

6 yrs

term of each member; one-third retire every 2 years

Constitutional rule

30+

minimum age to become a Rajya Sabha MP

Constitutional rule

Representation of States

Seats are allocated to each State (and to UTs with legislatures) roughly by population — so larger States have more seats. They are listed in the Fourth Schedule.

How members are elected

By the elected MLAs of each State, using proportional representation with a single transferable vote (Art. 80(4)). Voting is by open ballot for party members.

Nominated members

The President nominates 12 members with special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art and social service (Art. 80(3)).

Retirement by rotation

Because about one-third of members retire every second year, the House is never empty and never dissolved — it is a continuing or permanent House.

Chairman & Deputy Chairman

The Vice-President of India is the ex officio Chairman (Art. 64, 89). The Deputy Chairman is elected by members from among themselves.

Legislative role

Ordinary Bills and Constitutional Amendments need its approval. On Money Bills it can only recommend. It cannot remove the government by a no-confidence vote.

Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha

Lok Sabha compared with Rajya Sabha
	Lok Sabha	Rajya Sabha
Also called	House of the People	Council of States
Represents	The people, constituency by constituency	The States and Union Territories
Constitutional maximum	550 elected members (Art. 81)	250 — up to 238 elected + 12 nominated (Art. 80)
Current strength	543 elected seats	245 seats — 233 elected + 12 nominated
How members are chosen	Directly by voters, first-past-the-post	Indirectly by elected MLAs, proportional representation (single transferable vote)
Term	5 years for the House, unless dissolved earlier	Permanent House; each member serves 6 years
Can it be dissolved?	Yes, by the President	No — one-third of members retire every two years
Presiding officer	Speaker, elected by the House	Chairman — the Vice-President, ex officio
Money Bills	Introduced only here; final say	Can only recommend changes, within 14 days
No-confidence motion	Can remove the government	Cannot remove the government
Minimum age	25 years	30 years
Special powers	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to it	Can authorise Parliament to legislate on a State List subject in the national interest (Art. 249)

Current status Current seat counts can change through Parliament's reorganisation or delimitation laws — verify against sansad.in before relying on them.

Your representative in Parliament

MP — Member of Parliament

“MP” means a member of either House of Parliament. How they get there is completely different.

Voters

elect them directly in a Parliamentary Constituency

5 yrs

unless the Lok Sabha is dissolved earlier

1 seat

each MP represents one constituency

What MPs do

Law-making

Debate, amend and vote on Bills on Union List and Concurrent List subjects.

Questions

Ask ministers questions during Question Hour; raise urgent issues in Zero Hour.

Debates

Speak on motions, Bills and matters of public importance.

Committees

Scrutinise Bills, ministry spending and policy in parliamentary committees.

Budget

Examine, debate and vote on the Union Budget and demands for grants.

Representation

Take constituents' concerns to Parliament and to Union ministries.

What an MP does not do

An MP doesn't personally run government services in their constituency. Roads, hospitals, schools and police are delivered by Union and State departments and local bodies, staffed by civil servants. An MP can raise problems, follow them up with officials, and recommend local works under the MP Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) — which is executed by the district administration.

MP vs MLA

MP compared with MLA
	MP	MLA
Full form	Member of Parliament	Member of Legislative Assembly
Sits in	Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha	State Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)
Elected from	Parliamentary Constituency (Lok Sabha MP); a State's MLAs (Rajya Sabha MP)	Assembly Constituency — usually smaller; several make up one Lok Sabha seat
Who votes	Voters directly (Lok Sabha); MLAs indirectly (Rajya Sabha)	Voters directly
Makes laws on	Union List and Concurrent List subjects	State List and Concurrent List subjects, for that State
Votes on	Union Budget	State Budget
Holds to account	Union government — PM and Union ministers	State government — CM and State ministers
Term	5 years (Lok Sabha) or 6 years (Rajya Sabha)	5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved earlier
Minimum age	25 (Lok Sabha) · 30 (Rajya Sabha)	25
Development fund	MPLADS — can recommend works in the constituency (scheme, not a constitutional power)	State MLA local-area schemes, where the State runs one

Browse MPs and MLAs from every StateBrowse representatives

PART 04State legislatures

State legislatures

Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad

Every State has a Legislature made up of the Governor and a Legislative Assembly. A few also have a second House, the Legislative Council (Art. 168).

Every State

Legislative Assembly — Vidhan Sabha

Members — MLAs, directly elected by voters of each Assembly Constituency.
Size — Between 60 and 500 members (Art. 170); a few small States have fewer by special provision.
Term — Five years from the first meeting, unless dissolved earlier by the Governor (Art. 172).
Government formation — The party or alliance with majority support forms the government; its leader is appointed Chief Minister.
Majority — More than half of the Assembly's strength — e.g. 202 in a 403-seat Assembly.

Only some States

Legislative Council — Vidhan Parishad

Not in every State — Parliament creates or abolishes a Council by law, after the Assembly passes a resolution by special majority (Art. 169).
Continuing House — Never dissolved; members serve six years and one-third retire every two years.
Size — At most one-third of the Assembly's members, and at least 40 (Art. 171).
Revising role — Can delay but not finally block ordinary Bills; only recommends on Money Bills; no role in making or removing the government.

How MLCs are chosen (Art. 171)

≈⅓ local bodies

1/12

≈⅓ by MLAs

≈⅙ nominated

≈ One-third elected by members of local bodies (municipalities, district boards etc.)
One-twelfth elected by registered graduates of at least three years' standing
One-twelfth elected by teachers of secondary schools and above
≈ One-third elected by MLAs, from among non-members
The rest (≈ one-sixth) nominated by the Governor for literature, science, art, co-operative movement and social service

States with a Legislative CouncilCurrent status

Andhra PradeshBiharKarnatakaMaharashtraTelanganaUttar Pradesh

This list changes when Parliament creates or abolishes a Council. Verify against the official legislature websites before publication. (Jammu & Kashmir's Council was abolished in 2019.)

Vidhan Sabha vs Vidhan Parishad

Legislative Assembly compared with Legislative Council
	Vidhan Sabha	Vidhan Parishad
Also called	Legislative Assembly · Lower House	Legislative Council · Upper House
Exists in	Every State, plus Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu & Kashmir	Only some States — created or abolished by Parliament on the Assembly's request (Art. 169)
Members	MLAs, directly elected	MLCs, mostly indirectly elected; about one-sixth nominated by the Governor
Size	Normally 60–500 members (Art. 170); a few small States have fewer	At most one-third of the Assembly's size, minimum 40 (Art. 171)
Term	5 years, unless dissolved earlier	Permanent; members serve 6 years, one-third retiring every two years
Can it be dissolved?	Yes, by the Governor	No
Government formation	CM and ministers must keep its confidence	No role in making or unmaking the government
Money Bills	Introduced only here; final say	Can only recommend, within 14 days
Ordinary Bills	Final say if the Houses disagree	Can delay — up to 3 months, then 1 month if passed again (Art. 197)

Your representative in the State

MLA — Member of Legislative Assembly

For most day-to-day State matters — police, State roads, hospitals, schools, agriculture — the MLA is your representative in the body that makes the laws and passes the budget.

Who is an MLA?

A directly elected member of a State's Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). Must be an Indian citizen, at least 25 years old (Art. 173), and registered as a voter.

Who votes for an MLA?

Every registered voter in that Assembly Constituency. Each constituency elects one MLA by first-past-the-post.

What is an Assembly Constituency?

A smaller area within a State — several Assembly Constituencies together usually make up one Lok Sabha constituency.

What an MLA does

Represents the constituency in the Assembly
Participates in making State laws
Raises constituency and public issues
Questions the State government and ministers
Participates in debates and motions
Votes on legislation
Examines and votes on the State Budget
Serves on Assembly committees

What an MLA does not directly control

Police postings and investigations — run by the State Home Department and police officers
District administration — headed by the District Collector / Magistrate
Hiring or firing government employees
Court cases — decided by an independent judiciary
Municipal services — run by the local body
Union subjects such as railways or passports

Legislator vs administrator

An MLA is a legislator. Unless they are also a minister, they don't head any department. Administration — delivering services, enforcing laws, spending budgets — is done by government departments and civil servants, under the direction of ministers who are answerable to the Assembly.

Want to know your MLA?Find your MLA

PART 05The executive

Head of Government

Prime Minister of India

The Prime Minister leads the Union government. The PM is not directly elected by all Indian citizens — the office comes from the Lok Sabha's support.

Constitutional position — Head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the President (Art. 74).
Coming to office — Appointed by the President (Art. 75(1)) — by convention, the leader who commands majority support in the Lok Sabha.
Relationship with the Lok Sabha — The government stays in office only while it has the Lok Sabha's confidence.
Council of Ministers — Ministers are appointed by the President on the PM's advice. Total size is capped at 15% of Lok Sabha strength (Art. 75(1A)).
Cabinet — The senior ministers who, with the PM, take the government's major decisions.
Membership — Must be a member of either House of Parliament, or become one within six months (Art. 75(5)).

Major functions

Government leadership

Chairs the Cabinet, allocates portfolios, and can ask a minister to resign.

In Parliament

Leader of the House (if a Lok Sabha member); leads the government's legislative agenda.

Policy coordination

Coordinates between ministries and sets national priorities.

Advice to the President

Advises the President on appointing ministers and on key appointments; communicates Cabinet decisions (Art. 78).

Voters
elect 543 MPs
MPs
form parties & alliances
Lok Sabha majority / support
272+ or confidence
President appoints PM
Art. 75

No fixed term

The Prime Minister has no fixed term of office. They serve as long as they keep the Lok Sabha's confidence — which can end through a no-confidence motion, resignation, or a new Lok Sabha electing a different majority.

Head of State

President of India

The President is the constitutional head of the Union. All executive action of the Union is taken in the President's name — but on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

President

Constitutional Head of the Union

Acts on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, which is binding (Art. 74(1)). May ask once for advice to be reconsidered.

Prime Minister

Head of Government

Leads the Council of Ministers that actually takes and answers for the government's decisions.

5 yrs

term; eligible for re-election (Arts. 56–57)

Constitutional rule

35+

minimum age (Art. 58)

Constitutional rule

Electoral College

elected MPs + elected MLAs (Art. 54)

Constitutional rule

Impeachment

only way to remove before term ends (Art. 61)

Constitutional rule

How the Electoral College works

The electors are the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and of the Legislative Assemblies of all States and of Delhi and Puducherry. Nominated members and MLCs do not vote. Each vote carries a value based on population, so that States are represented uniformly and the total of MLAs' votes equals the total of MPs' votes (Art. 55). Voting is by proportional representation with a single transferable vote, by secret ballot.

Powers and functions

Appointments

Appoints the PM, and ministers on the PM's advice; also Governors, judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, the CAG, and Election Commissioners, as the Constitution and laws provide.

Bills

Summons and prorogues Parliament; can assent, withhold assent, or return a non-Money Bill once for reconsideration (Art. 111).

Ordinances

Can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session (Art. 123). They lapse six weeks after Parliament reassembles unless approved.

Emergency provisions

National Emergency (Art. 352), President's Rule in a State (Art. 356) and Financial Emergency (Art. 360) — each on Cabinet advice and subject to Parliament's approval.

Armed Forces

Supreme Command of the Defence Forces is vested in the President (Art. 53(2)), exercised in accordance with law.

Pardons

Can grant pardons, reprieves and remissions of sentence (Art. 72) — again on the Council of Ministers' advice.

Second-highest constitutional office

Vice-President of India

The Vice-President presides over the Rajya Sabha and steps in if the President's office falls vacant.

All MPs

both Houses, elected and nominated, form the electoral college (Art. 66)

Constitutional rule

5 yrs

term (Art. 67)

Constitutional rule

Chairman

of the Rajya Sabha, ex officio (Art. 64)

Constitutional rule

35+

minimum age; must qualify for Rajya Sabha

Constitutional rule

President compared with Vice-President
	President	Vice-President
Role	Head of State	Chairman of Rajya Sabha; stand-in for the President
Electoral college	Elected MPs + elected MLAs	All MPs of both Houses; MLAs don't vote
Removal	Impeachment by Parliament (Art. 61)	Rajya Sabha resolution by effective majority, agreed to by Lok Sabha (Art. 67(b))
Succession	—	Acts as President in a vacancy until a new President is elected — within six months (Arts. 62, 65)

Constitutional head of a State

Governor

The Governor is to a State roughly what the President is to the Union — the constitutional head, in whose name the State executive acts. The Governor is not equivalent to the Chief Minister.

Appointment — By the President, by warrant (Art. 155) — in practice on the Union government's advice.
Term — Five years, but holds office during the pleasure of the President (Art. 156) — so can be removed or transferred earlier.
Council of Ministers — Acts on the aid and advice of the State Council of Ministers, except where the Constitution requires the Governor to act in their discretion (Art. 163).
Legislative functions — Summons and prorogues the Legislature, can dissolve the Assembly, addresses it, and gives assent to Bills (Art. 200).
Assent to Bills — Can assent, withhold assent, return a non-Money Bill for reconsideration, or reserve it for the President.
Ordinances — Can issue ordinances when the Legislature is not in session (Art. 213).

Role in government formation

After an Assembly election the Governor appoints the Chief Minister (Art. 164). Where one party or pre-poll alliance has a clear majority, this is straightforward. Where there is no clear majority, the Governor has to judge who is most likely to command the Assembly's confidence. The Supreme Court has held (S.R. Bommai, 1994) that the proper place to test majority is the floor of the House — which is why a Governor may ask a new CM to prove majority in a floor test within a set time.

Governor compared with Chief Minister
	Governor	Chief Minister
Role	Constitutional head of the State	Head of the State Government
Chosen by	Appointed by the President	Appointed by the Governor, on the basis of Assembly majority
Answerable to	The President	The Legislative Assembly
Real executive power	Limited — acts on ministers' advice except in specified matters	Leads the Council of Ministers that runs the State
Term	5 years, at the President's pleasure	No fixed term — while the Assembly's confidence lasts

Head of State Government

Chief Minister

The Chief Minister leads the State government — the State-level equivalent of the Prime Minister.

Appointment — By the Governor (Art. 164(1)) — normally the leader who commands majority support in the Legislative Assembly.
Majority / support — Must keep the confidence of the Assembly; the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to it (Art. 164(2)).
Council of Ministers — Appointed by the Governor on the CM's advice. At most 15% of the Assembly's strength, and at least 12 (Art. 164(1A)).
Cabinet — The senior ministers who, with the CM, make the State government's key decisions.
Responsibilities — Leads policy for State subjects such as police, health, agriculture and State infrastructure; presents the government's programme.
Relationship with the Governor — Communicates Council of Ministers' decisions to the Governor and advises on State appointments (Art. 167).
Relationship with MLAs — Usually leader of the majority party in the Assembly; needs MLAs' continued support to govern.
State administration — Works through State departments and the civil service, which carry out decisions.
Membership — Must be a member of the State Legislature, or become one within six months (Art. 164(4)).

Voters
MLAs
Majority / support
Chief Minister
Council of Ministers
State Government

Politicians and civil servants

Who actually runs the government?

Two groups work together: elected politicians who decide and answer to the public, and permanent officials who carry decisions out.

Political executive · temporary

PM, CM and ministers

Chosen through the electoral process; change when governments change
Set policy and priorities, within constitutional and legal limits
Propose laws and budgets to the legislature
Answerable to Parliament / the Assembly, and ultimately to voters

Permanent executive · career

Civil servants — IAS, IPS and others

Recruited by exams (UPSC, State PSCs); serve until retirement
Advise ministers, draft policy and implement laws and schemes
Run ministries, departments and district administration
Bound by service rules to be politically neutral

This is not a simple “politicians order, officials obey” split. Officials must follow the law even when a minister wants otherwise; many decisions are made by statutory authorities with their own legal powers; and independent bodies — the courts, the CAG, the Election Commission — check both groups.

PART 06Forming a government

After the results

How does a government get formed?

Elections produce MPs and MLAs. A government is formed from them — by whoever can show the House's support.

Election
Lok Sabha results
Majority / support
President invites a leader
to form government
Prime Minister
Council of Ministers
Government

Majority government

One party wins more than half the seats on its own and forms the government.

Coalition government

Two or more parties share power — ministers come from more than one party, often under a common programme.

Minority government with support

The ruling party or alliance lacks a majority but survives because other parties support it from outside, without joining the ministry.

Hung House

No party or pre-poll alliance crosses the majority mark. Post-poll negotiations follow, and majority is tested on the floor.

Floor test

When a government's majority is in doubt — after a hung verdict, defections or a split — the President or Governor can ask it to prove majority by a vote in the House. That vote, not a list of signatures or a meeting at Raj Bhavan, is the decisive test.

Numbers that decide

What is a majority?

“Majority” means more than half — but more than half of what? Indian constitutional law uses four different kinds, and which one applies depends on what is being voted on.

Example

A House has 100 members. The usual majority mark is 51 — more than half of 100. If 4 seats are vacant, its effective strength is 96 and an effective majority is 49. If only 80 members are present and voting on a Bill, a simple majority is 41.

Simple majority

More than half of members present and voting. Used for ordinary Bills, most motions — and for no-confidence and confidence votes.

Absolute majority

More than half of the House's total membership. This is the “majority mark” — 272 of 543 — for government formation.

Effective majority

More than half of the effective strength (total minus vacancies). Used to remove the Vice-President, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker.

Special majority

Stricter thresholds for serious decisions. For most Constitutional Amendments (Art. 368): a majority of total membership AND two-thirds of those present and voting. Impeaching the President needs two-thirds of total membership (Art. 61).

Try it yourself

Try

Total seats 100Vacant seats 0Present & voting 100

Simple majority51

votes needed · 100 present and voting

Most Bills, motions and resolutions. Strictly, more 'Ayes' than 'Noes' — abstentions don't count.

Absolute majority51

votes needed · total strength of 100

The number usually meant by 'majority mark' when forming a government.

Effective majority51

votes needed · effective strength of 100 (total − vacancies)

Removing the Vice-President (in Rajya Sabha), the Speaker or Deputy Speaker.

Special majority (Art. 368)67

votes needed · both: > half of 100 AND ≥ ⅔ of 100 voting

Constitutional amendments — in each House separately.

Illustration only. The exact test for any vote is set by the Constitution and the House's Rules of Procedure, and ties are decided by the presiding officer's casting vote.

Parties, candidates, alliances

Political parties

Parties bring candidates together around shared ideas and a programme, contest elections, and form governments or the opposition.

Registered parties

Parties registered with the Election Commission under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.

Recognition — national & State

A registered party is recognised as a National or State party when it meets ECI criteria based on vote share and seats won. Recognition brings a reserved symbol.

Party symbol

Recognised parties have a reserved symbol across their territory; others choose from free symbols. Symbols help voters identify candidates on the EVM.

Candidate & party ticket

A party chooses one candidate per seat — giving a “ticket”. The candidate then contests on the party's symbol.

Independent candidate

Anyone eligible can contest without a party. Independents get a free symbol and can win seats.

Alliance & coalition

An alliance is an agreement between parties, before or after an election. A coalition is a government formed by several parties.

Current status Recognition criteria are set by the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968, and the list of recognised parties changes after elections — check eci.gov.in for the current list.

Four words that often get mixed up

Party

An organisation with members, leaders and a programme.

Candidate

One person contesting one seat — with a party ticket or as an independent.

Alliance

Several parties agreeing to contest together or support each other.

Government

The PM/CM and ministers in office — formed by a party or alliance with majority support.

Anti-defection law (Tenth Schedule)

An elected member can be disqualified for voluntarily giving up membership of their party or voting against the party's direction (whip) in the House without permission. There are limited exceptions, such as a merger supported by two-thirds of the legislature party. The Speaker or Chairman decides disqualification petitions, subject to judicial review.

Explore political partiesParty directory

Accountability

The opposition

The opposition is made up of members and parties not in government. Its job is not simply to be against the government but to scrutinise it and offer voters an alternative.

Why it exists

A democracy needs someone whose role is to test the government's claims and keep it answerable between elections.

In Parliament

Questions ministers, debates Bills, moves amendments and motions — including, in the Lok Sabha, no-confidence motions.

In State Assemblies

Plays the same role against the State government.

Questioning

Uses Question Hour, Zero Hour and debates to bring issues on record.

Committees

Serves on committees — by convention, the Public Accounts Committee, which examines government spending, is chaired by an opposition member.

Alternative policy

Presents different policy positions, so voters can compare at the next election.

Leader of Opposition

The leader of the largest opposition party can be recognised as Leader of Opposition by the Speaker or Chairman — a statutory position in Parliament under the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977. In practice, recognition in the Lok Sabha has followed a convention that the party should hold at least one-tenth of the House's seats. States have similar arrangements under their own laws and rules.

PART 07Making laws

Legislation

How does a Bill become a law?

Pick a type of Bill and press play to walk through its journey. The three types follow different rules.

Bill introduced
Discussion
Committee / scrutiny
where applicable
House voting
Other House
where applicable
Assent
President / Governor
Law

Step 1 / 7

PART 08Elections

Election process

How elections work in India

Every Lok Sabha and Assembly election follows the same broad sequence, from the Election Commission's announcement to the formation of a government.

Step 1 / 12

Statutory rule

Timelines — such as the gap between notification, nominations, scrutiny, withdrawal and polling — are set by the Representation of the People Act, 1951 and the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961. Specific dates are announced by the ECI for each election.

Constitutional body

Election Commission of India

The ECI is the constitutional authority responsible for free and fair elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President (Art. 324).

Constitutional status

Created by Article 324. Made up of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners appointed by the President under the applicable law.

Electoral rolls

Prepares and updates the voter list for every constituency.

Election schedule

Decides and announces election dates and phases.

Conduct of elections

Deploys officials and machinery; supervises polling and counting.

Parties & candidates

Registers parties, grants recognition and symbols, and monitors candidates' expenditure.

Model Code of Conduct

Enforces the MCC from announcement to results.

Counting & results

Oversees counting and the declaration of results through Returning Officers.

Voter education

Runs voter-awareness programmes such as SVEEP.

ECI vs State Election Commissions

Elections to panchayats and municipalities are not run by the ECI. Each State has a separate State Election Commission for those elections (Arts. 243K and 243ZA).

Election calendar

Types of elections in India

Voters take part directly in some of these; the rest are conducted among elected representatives.

Voters take part

Lok Sabha General Election

Who votes: All registered voters in India
Elects: 543 Lok Sabha MPs
How often: Every 5 years, or earlier if the Lok Sabha is dissolved
Method: Direct
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Voters take part

State Assembly Election

Who votes: Registered voters of that State
Elects: MLAs of the State Assembly
How often: Every 5 years per State — each State follows its own cycle
Method: Direct
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Indirect

Rajya Sabha Election

Who votes: Elected MLAs of each State (UT electoral colleges for UT seats)
Elects: Rajya Sabha members
How often: Every two years for one-third of seats, plus casual vacancies
Method: Indirect — open ballot, proportional representation
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Indirect

Legislative Council Election

Who votes: MLAs, local-body members, registered graduates and teachers (by category)
Elects: MLCs, in States that have a Council
How often: Every two years for one-third of seats
Method: Indirect / mixed
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Indirect

Presidential Election

Who votes: Elected MPs and elected MLAs (States, Delhi, Puducherry)
Elects: President of India
How often: Every 5 years, or within 6 months of a vacancy
Method: Indirect — secret ballot, single transferable vote
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Indirect

Vice-Presidential Election

Who votes: All members of both Houses of Parliament
Elects: Vice-President of India
How often: Every 5 years, or as soon as possible after a vacancy
Method: Indirect — secret ballot
Conducted by: Election Commission of India

Indirect

Bye-election

Who votes: Voters (or electors) of the seat that fell vacant
Elects: A replacement member for the rest of the term
How often: When a seat falls vacant — normally within 6 months
Method: Same as the original election
Conducted by: ECI (State Election Commission for local bodies)

Voters take part

Local Body Elections

Who votes: Registered voters of the ward or panchayat
Elects: Panchayat members, councillors, and in some States Sarpanch/Mayor
How often: Every 5 years
Method: Mostly direct
Conducted by: State Election Commission of that State

Terms & tenure

Election term / tenure table

How long each office or House lasts, and whether it can end early. Note that the PM and CM have no independent fixed term.

President

5 yrs

Vice-President

5 yrs

Lok Sabha

5 yrs

Rajya Sabha

Permanent House

Rajya Sabha member

6 yrs

Legislative Assembly

5 yrs

MLA

5 yrs

Legislative Council

Permanent House

MLC

6 yrs

Prime Minister

No fixed term

Chief Minister

No fixed term

Governor

5 yrs

Election method, voters, term, dissolution and frequency for each Indian political office and House
Position / House	Election method	Who votes	Normal term	Can it be dissolved?	Election frequency	Important notes
President	Indirect election	Elected MPs + elected MLAs	5 years	Not applicable — removable only by impeachment (Art. 61)	Every 5 years, or within 6 months of a vacancy	Eligible for re-election (Art. 57). Stays until a successor takes office.
Vice-President	Indirect election	All MPs (elected + nominated)	5 years	Not applicable — removable by Rajya Sabha resolution agreed by Lok Sabha	Every 5 years, or on vacancy	Stays until a successor takes office (Art. 67).
Lok Sabha	Direct election	Registered voters	5 years from first meeting	Yes — by the President	General election every 5 years, or earlier	Can be extended by law one year at a time only during a national Emergency (Art. 83(2)).
Rajya Sabha	Indirect election + nomination	Elected MLAs; UT electoral colleges	Permanent House	No	Biennial — one-third of members every 2 years	A continuing House; it never ends as a whole.
Rajya Sabha member	Indirect election	Elected MLAs	6 years	Not applicable	Biennial	Someone elected to a casual vacancy serves only the rest of that term.
Legislative Assembly	Direct election	Registered voters of the State	5 years from first meeting	Yes — by the Governor	Every 5 years, or earlier	May be suspended or dissolved under President's Rule (Art. 356).
MLA	Direct election	Voters of the Assembly Constituency	Same as the Assembly	Seat ends if the Assembly is dissolved	With each Assembly election	A by-election winner serves the rest of the term.
Legislative Council	Mixed	By category (see MLC)	Permanent House	No — but Parliament can abolish it (Art. 169)	Biennial	Exists only in some States.
MLC	Indirect / nominated	MLAs, local bodies, graduates, teachers; Governor nominates	6 years	Not applicable	Biennial	One-third retire every two years.
Prime Minister	Appointed by the President	No direct vote	No fixed term	Not applicable	—	Stays in office while holding Lok Sabha confidence; must be, or within 6 months become, an MP (Art. 75).
Chief Minister	Appointed by the Governor	No direct vote	No fixed term	Not applicable	—	Stays in office while holding Assembly confidence; must be, or within 6 months become, a member of the State Legislature (Art. 164).
Governor	Appointed by the President	No vote	5 years, during the pleasure of the President	Not applicable — can be removed or transferred by the President	—	Stays until a successor takes charge (Art. 156).

Mid-term vacancies

What happens when an MP or MLA dies or resigns?

The seat becomes vacant, and it is normally filled by a bye-election for the remainder of the term.

Vacancy — A seat falls vacant through death, resignation (accepted by the Speaker/Chairman), disqualification, or the member being elected to another seat and giving one up.
Bye-election — The ECI holds an election in just that constituency. Under Section 151A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, it should be held within six months of the vacancy.
When it may not be held — If the remainder of the member's term is less than one year, or if the ECI, in consultation with the Union Government, certifies it is difficult to hold the bye-election within that period.
Replacement process — Same as a normal election — nominations, campaign, polling, counting. For Rajya Sabha and MLC seats, the same electors (MLAs etc.) vote again.
Remaining term — The winner serves only the rest of the original term — not a fresh five or six years.

Seat falls vacant
e.g. MLA resigns in year 2
ECI schedules bye-election
normally within 6 months
Constituency votes
only that seat
New MLA
serves years 3–5 only

Example

An Assembly is elected in 2025 with a term running to 2030. An MLA resigns in 2027. A bye-election is held in that constituency in 2027; the winner serves until the Assembly's term ends in 2030, when everyone faces the next general Assembly election together.

Where your vote counts

The constituency system

A constituency is the area whose voters elect one representative. Lok Sabha and Assembly seats are two different layers of constituency.

Parliamentary Constituency — Elects one Lok Sabha MP. There are 543.
Assembly Constituency — Elects one MLA. Each Lok Sabha seat is usually made up of several Assembly seats.
Reserved Constituency — A seat where only candidates from a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe may contest. All registered voters there still vote.
SC reservation — Seats reserved for Scheduled Castes in the Lok Sabha (Art. 330) and Assemblies (Art. 332), roughly in proportion to their population.
ST reservation — Seats reserved for Scheduled Tribes on the same principle.
Delimitation — Redrawing boundaries and fixing seat numbers, done by an independent Delimitation Commission. Its orders have the force of law, and courts have generally declined to interfere with them (Art. 329).

Current status

The number of seats each State gets is frozen on the 1971 Census until the first Census taken after 2026 (84th Amendment, 2001). Boundaries were last redrawn nationally on the 2001 Census, in force since 2008 — which gives the Lok Sabha 84 SC and 47 ST reserved seats today. Verify before relying on these figures.

Constitutional rule

The 106th Amendment (2023) reserves one-third of Lok Sabha and Assembly seats for women. It comes into effect only after the next delimitation following the Census, so it is not yet in force.

State
Districts
Lok Sabha Constituencies
Assembly Constituencies
Polling Stations
Voters

Boundaries don't always line up

Constituencies are drawn for elections; districts are drawn for administration. An Assembly or Lok Sabha constituency can cross district lines, and a district can contain parts of several Lok Sabha seats.

Explore your constituencyExplore your constituency

From citizen to voter

The voter journey

Eleven steps from turning 18 to seeing a government formed.

1
18+ / eligibility
Indian citizen, 18 or older on the qualifying date, ordinarily resident in the constituency
2
Voter registration
Apply to be enrolled — online through ECI's portals or via your Booth Level Officer
3
Electoral roll
Your name appears on the roll for your polling area; you receive an EPIC (voter ID)
4
Know your constituency
Find your Lok Sabha and Assembly constituency and polling station
5
Candidates
Read candidates' affidavits: assets, education, criminal cases
6
Campaign
Hear parties' and candidates' programmes
7
Polling
Go to your booth, show ID, get inked
8
Vote
Press the button on the EVM; check the VVPAT slip
9
Counting
Votes are counted on the scheduled day
10
Winner
The candidate with most votes is declared elected
11
Government formation
MPs / MLAs' numbers decide who governs

Current status

Eligibility, registration and electoral-roll rules — including qualifying dates and accepted identity documents — are set by the ECI and can change. Check the ECI's official voter services before you apply or go to vote.

A framework

How to understand any election result

Use these eight checks on any result — national, State or local — including NetaData's election pages.

Look at total seats

How big is the House? 543 for the Lok Sabha; varies by State for Assemblies.

Look at winning candidates

Who won each seat, and by what margin?

Look at party-wise seats

Add up seats by party. Seats matter more than vote share for forming a government.

Check the majority mark

More than half of total seats — e.g. 272 of 543.

Check alliances / support

Add pre-poll allies and any post-poll support.

Identify government formation

Who is invited to form the government, and who becomes PM or CM?

Identify the opposition

Which parties sit opposite, and does any qualify for Leader of Opposition?

Check constituency-level results

Your own seat: winner, runner-up, margin, turnout, NOTA.

Seats vs votes

Under first-past-the-post, a party's share of seats can be very different from its share of votes. A party that narrowly wins many seats can end up with far more seats than its vote share alone would suggest.

Look up a State's current party strengthStates & UTs See how parties performedParty directory

PART 09Who does what

The most practical section

Who is responsible for what?

Have a problem with a road, water supply or a passport? Search it below to see which level of government usually handles it. Where the honest answer is “it depends”, the table says so.

Which level of government is usually responsible for common public issues
Problem / service	Usually responsible	Why / notes
National defence	Union Union Government	Union List — Ministry of Defence and the armed forces.
Foreign affairs	Union Union Government	Union List — Ministry of External Affairs.
Passport	Union Union Government	Issued by the Ministry of External Affairs; the address check is done by State police.
Railways	Union Union Government	Ministry of Railways. Metro systems are often Union–State joint ventures.
Currency & banking	Union Union Government / RBI	Union List — the Reserve Bank of India regulates banks.
Income tax	Union Union Government	Collected by the Income Tax Department under the Ministry of Finance.
GST	Shared / depends Union and States together	Rates are recommended by the GST Council; CGST goes to the Union, SGST to States.
Police & public order	State State Government	State List. Exception: Delhi Police reports to the Union Home Ministry.
National highways	Union Union Government	Ministry of Road Transport & Highways / NHAI.
State highways & district roads	State State Government	Usually the State Public Works Department.
City and local roads	Local Depends on the road and jurisdiction	Often the municipal body or a development authority — but a road through a city can still be a State or National highway.
Village roads	Shared / depends Depends on the scheme and authority	Gram Panchayat, State rural works department, or a Union-funded scheme such as PMGSY.
Garbage collection	Local Urban local body	Municipal Corporation or Municipality; Gram Panchayat in villages.
Street lights & drains	Local Urban/rural local body	Usually the municipality or panchayat.
Water supply	Shared / depends Depends on urban/rural system	Cities: municipal body or a State water board. Villages: panchayat and State departments, often under Union schemes.
Electricity supply	State Mostly State power utilities	Electricity is on the Concurrent List; most distribution companies are State-owned or State-regulated.
School education	Shared / depends Shared — mostly States	Education is on the Concurrent List. States run most government schools; the Union sets national frameworks and runs some schools; local bodies manage some.
Healthcare	Shared / depends Shared — different roles	Public health and hospitals are on the State List; the Union runs national programmes and some institutions; local bodies handle sanitation and some clinics.
Ration card / PDS	State State Government	State food & civil supplies departments, within the Union's national food-security framework.
Land records & property registration	State State Government	State revenue and registration departments.
Birth & death certificates	Local Local registrar	Under a central law, run through State and local-body registrars.
Court cases	Judiciary Judiciary	Courts are independent of the Union and State governments.

Varies by State Arrangements differ between States, cities and schemes. Treat this as a starting point for where to ask, not a legal determination.

Three tiers

Union vs State vs Local government

Three levels of government, each elected separately, each with its own responsibilities.

Union

Legislature: Parliament
Executive head: Prime Minister & Union Council of Ministers
Constitutional head: President
Area: The whole country
Typical subjects: Defence, foreign affairs, railways, currency, national highways
Elections run by: Election Commission of India

State

Legislature: Legislative Assembly (+ Council in some States)
Executive head: Chief Minister & State Council of Ministers
Constitutional head: Governor
Area: One State
Typical subjects: Police, public order, health, agriculture, State roads
Elections run by: Election Commission of India

Local

Legislature: Panchayat / municipal council (makes bye-laws, not Acts)
Executive head: Sarpanch / Pradhan / Mayor — with officials like the Municipal Commissioner
Constitutional basis: 73rd & 74th Amendments (1992); State laws
Area: A village, block, district, town or city
Typical subjects: Sanitation, garbage, drains, street lights, local roads, water
Elections run by: State Election Commission

Union Government
State Government
District / Local administration

This is a governance-level diagram, not a chain of command. Each level gets its powers from the Constitution or State law — not from the level above it.

Grassroots democracy

Local government

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) made panchayats and municipalities constitutional bodies with regular elections every five years. Their exact structure is set by each State's law.

Gram Panchayat
village
Panchayat Samiti
block / intermediate
Zila Parishad
district

Gram Sabha — All registered voters of the village — the base of the system (Art. 243A).
Sarpanch / Pradhan — Head of the Gram Panchayat — elected directly by voters or by panchayat members, depending on the State's law.
Three tiers — Village, block and district. States with a population under 20 lakh may skip the middle tier (Art. 243B).
Reservation — Seats reserved for SCs and STs, and at least one-third for women (Art. 243D); many States reserve 50% for women.

District-level administration

Alongside elected local bodies, each district has a District Collector / District Magistrate (usually IAS) who heads the State's administration in the district — revenue, law and order coordination, elections and disaster management — and a Superintendent of Police for policing.

Varies by State

Names, number of tiers, how heads are chosen and their terms all vary by State. Some areas — such as certain Scheduled and tribal areas — follow different arrangements.

PART 10Reference

Common misconceptions

Myth vs fact

Tap a myth to see what actually happens.

Myth 1“My vote directly elects the Prime Minister.”Show fact

FactYou vote for a Lok Sabha candidate in your constituency. The winners become MPs, and the President appoints as PM the leader who commands majority support among them. The PM's name is not on your ballot.

Myth 2“My MLA controls the police directly.”Show fact

FactPolice is a State subject run by the State Home Department under the Chief Minister and Home Minister, with IPS and State police officers in command. An MLA can raise issues in the Assembly and with officials, but does not command police officers.

Myth 3“My MP controls every road in the constituency.”Show fact

FactRoads belong to different authorities — NHAI for national highways, the State PWD for State roads, municipal bodies or panchayats for local roads. An MP can recommend works (for example under MPLADS) and raise issues, but departments build and maintain roads.

Myth 4“The President runs the government.”Show fact

FactThe President is the constitutional head of the Union. Real executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, whose advice the President is bound to act on in almost all matters (Art. 74).

Myth 5“The Rajya Sabha can be dissolved like the Lok Sabha.”Show fact

FactThe Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and is never dissolved. Its members serve six-year terms, with about one-third retiring every two years.

Myth 6“Every State has a Legislative Council.”Show fact

FactOnly a few States currently have a Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad). Most States have a single House — the Legislative Assembly.

Myth 7“Every politician is a government employee.”Show fact

FactElected representatives hold political office for a term and answer to voters. Civil servants (IAS, IPS, State services) are permanent, recruited through exams, and bound by service rules to stay politically neutral.

Myth 8“If NOTA gets the most votes, the election is cancelled.”Show fact

FactUnder current rules, NOTA votes are counted and reported but do not change the result — the candidate with the most votes still wins.

Reference

Important political terms

Plain-language definitions, with the Hindi term you'll often hear in news and debate.

39 of 39 terms

ConstituencyNirvachan kshetra: A geographical area whose voters elect one representative — e.g. one MP or one MLA.
CandidateUmmeedvar: A person whose nomination has been accepted to contest an election.
ElectorMatdata: A person registered on the electoral roll and entitled to vote.
MPSansad: Member of Parliament — a member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha.
MLAVidhayak: Member of Legislative Assembly — directly elected member of a State Assembly.
MLCVidhan Parishad sadasya: Member of Legislative Council, in States that have an Upper House.
Lok SabhaHouse of the People: The directly elected Lower House of Parliament.
Rajya SabhaCouncil of States: The Upper House of Parliament, elected mainly by State MLAs.
Vidhan SabhaLegislative Assembly: The directly elected House of a State Legislature.
Vidhan ParishadLegislative Council: The Upper House of a State Legislature, where one exists.
MajorityBahumat: More than half. Which 'half' — of members voting, or of the whole House — depends on the rule being applied.
Minority governmentAlpmat sarkar: A government whose party lacks a majority on its own and survives with outside support.
CoalitionGathbandhan sarkar: A government formed by two or more parties sharing power.
AllianceGathbandhan: An agreement between parties to contest elections together or support each other.
OppositionVipaksh: Parties and members not in government, who scrutinise it and offer alternatives.
CabinetMantrimandal: The senior group of ministers within the Council of Ministers who take key decisions.
Council of MinistersMantri parishad: All ministers — Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State (independent charge) and Ministers of State.
LegislatureVidhayika: The law-making body — Parliament or a State Legislature.
ExecutiveKaryapalika: The branch that implements laws and runs the government.
JudiciaryNyayapalika: The courts, which interpret laws and resolve disputes.
OrdinanceAdhyadesh: A temporary law made by the President or Governor when the legislature is not in session; it lapses unless approved soon after the House reassembles.
BillVidheyak: A draft law under consideration by a legislature.
ActAdhiniyam: A Bill that has been passed and received assent — a law.
BudgetBajat: The government's annual statement of expected income and spending, approved by the legislature.
No-confidence motionAvishwas prastav: A motion in the Lok Sabha or Assembly which, if passed, forces the government to resign.
Confidence voteVishwas mat: A vote in which the government asks the House to affirm its support.
Floor testShakti parikshan: A vote on the floor of the House to find out whether a PM or CM actually has majority support.
By-electionUpchunav: An election to fill a single seat that fell vacant mid-term. Also spelt bye-election.
General electionAam chunav: Election to all seats of the Lok Sabha (or of an Assembly) at the end of its term or after dissolution.
DelimitationParisiman: Redrawing constituency boundaries and fixing the number of seats, done by a Delimitation Commission.
Reserved seatArakshit seat: A constituency where only SC (or only ST) candidates can contest; all voters there can vote.
Model Code of ConductAdarsh aachar sanhita: ECI guidelines for parties, candidates and governments during elections.
Electoral rollMatdata soochi: The official list of voters for each constituency, maintained by the ECI.
NOTAInmein se koi nahin: 'None of the Above' — an option to formally reject all candidates on the ballot.
EVMElectronic Voting Machine: The electronic device used to record votes in Indian elections.
VVPATVoter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail: A printer attached to the EVM that briefly shows the voter a slip confirming their vote.
Hung HouseTrishanku sadan: An election result in which no party or pre-poll alliance has a majority.
President's RuleRashtrapati shasan: Direct Union rule over a State when its constitutional machinery fails (Art. 356).
Anti-defection lawDal-badal virodhi kanoon: The Tenth Schedule — a member can be disqualified for leaving their party or defying its whip, with limited exceptions.

Quick answers

Frequently asked questions

Who elects the Prime Minister of India?

Citizens do not vote for the Prime Minister directly. Voters elect Lok Sabha MPs; the President then appoints as Prime Minister the leader who commands majority support in the Lok Sabha. The PM stays in office as long as they keep that support.

Who elects the President of India?

The President is elected by an Electoral College made up of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of all States and of Delhi and Puducherry, using proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.

What is the difference between an MP and an MLA?

An MP (Member of Parliament) sits in the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha and deals with Union matters such as defence, railways and foreign affairs. An MLA (Member of Legislative Assembly) sits in a State Assembly and deals with State matters such as police, public health and agriculture. Voters directly elect Lok Sabha MPs and MLAs.

What is the difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?

The Lok Sabha is directly elected by voters, has a five-year term and can be dissolved; the government must keep its confidence and Money Bills start there. The Rajya Sabha represents States, is elected mainly by State MLAs, is a permanent House that is never dissolved, and its members serve six-year terms.

How is a Chief Minister chosen?

Voters elect MLAs in the State Assembly election. The Governor then appoints as Chief Minister the leader who commands majority support in the Legislative Assembly. If support is in doubt, it is tested by a floor test in the Assembly.

How is an MLA elected?

Voters of an Assembly Constituency elect one MLA directly. The candidate with the most valid votes wins (first-past-the-post), even without an absolute majority of votes.

What happens if an MP or MLA dies or resigns?

The seat becomes vacant and the Election Commission normally holds a bye-election within six months. It may not be held if the remaining term is less than one year, or if the Commission, in consultation with the Union Government, certifies that holding it is difficult. The winner serves only the rest of the term.

What is a hung assembly or hung Lok Sabha?

A hung House is an election result in which no single party or pre-poll alliance wins a majority of seats. A government may then be formed by a coalition or by a minority government with outside support, and majority support is tested on the floor of the House.

What is the role of the Election Commission of India?

Under Article 324, the Election Commission of India superintends, directs and controls the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President. Local-body elections are conducted by State Election Commissions.

How many seats are needed for a majority in the Lok Sabha?

With all 543 seats filled, a party or alliance needs 272 seats for a majority — more than half. When seats are vacant, the working majority is calculated on the House's effective strength.

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